Digital and traditional storytelling

Workshop information and public resource

Announcement: Jason's new book about digital storytelling and new media narrative in education - Digital Storytelling in the Classroom: New Media Pathways to Literacy, Learning and Creativity- is now available for advance purchase.

Go to the book site to read reviews, peruse the table of contents, or purchase the book. Would you like your copy "signed at a distance?" Then contact us to receive a bookplate you can add to the inside cover.

PART II - The Art of Storytelling

Hello and welcome to the story part of digital storytelling!

If you are reading this page, you are probably in one of my digital storytelling workshops, or are simply looking for resources about storytelling in education. Whether or not you are in a workshop, feel free to use any materials you find here.

Storytelling in four parts. I have divided my storytelling resources into four parts, each with its own web page.

This is Part II- The art of storytelling, which is devoted to showing students how to create compelling stories. It also shows the step-by-step process I use with to help students complete digital stories.

If you are attending a workshop, or if you simply want to know more about the many facets of digital storytelling, please read this page, as well as Parts I, III and IV:

• Part I - Storytelling, literacy and learning
• Part III - The technology and techniques of digital storytelling
• Part IV - Assessment

Together, all three parts provide a fairly comprehensive overview of digital storytelling in an educational environment, from the big picture down to the details.

This web page is geared toward the classroom teacher. I assume you have limited time and resources to spend on incorporating digital storytelling into your curriculum. That is why I tend to think in terms of low budget projects that can yield high academic returns in a short amount of time.

Feel free to contact me with any questions: jason.ohler@uas.alaska.edu

Living in the Storytelling Age

What does it mean to be living in the Digital Age?

• On a technical level: we are bathed in bits.
• On an emotional, humanistic level: we are immersed in stories.

In other words, the Digital Age has unleashed the Storytelling Age for all of us.

The Three Ages of Story Media

Storytelling has been with us for thousands of years, but during the age of media it has taken on new expression and new meaning. I think of media-based storytelling in terms of three ages, or, to put it in more modern parlance, three versions:

1. Floor top media - Version 1.0 (1950's - present). Otherwise known as traditional mass media. Large media companies told stories to us and for us through broadcast TV and radio, and print publication. You have heard the saying, "the power of press is reserved for those who can afford one?" For many years individuals had limited access to "the press" and therefore created very little story media.
2. Desktop new media - Version 2.0. (1980's - 2003). Then sometime in the 1980's came the possibility of people (rather than just corporations) creating "new" media (video, digital stories, music, etc.) with personal computers. But the promise and reality have been very different. I have been helping people tell digital stories since the days of Apple IIe's (early 1980's), and I can tell you that until recently it has been difficult, expensive, and required a sledge hammer and a wizard to pull it off. The net result is that while it was possible for individuals to create new media, very few did. Most of us were left to dream about the day it would become possible.
3. Laptop new media - Version 3.0. (2003 - ??). In the past few years everything has changed. The very expensive, difficult world of new media has become so inexpensive and easy to use, that anyone with an average computer and a very small budget can produce quality media. For the first time ever, we can make the kind of media we have been consuming since version 1.0 of the story media revolution. The same way that word processing made writing accessible to anyone, new media version 3.0 is making media development widely available.
   
   Distribution has undergone radical transformation as well. It costs media companies millions to distribute a video signal. Now, anyone with a digital video camera and a reasonably robust Internet connection can do it.
   

All about access. Keep in mind that not everyone has digital tools and Internet access - the digital divide is real. But also keep in mind that suddenly lots of people do. One of the newest indicators of social equality, along with access to food, water, shelter, education and economic opportunity, has become access to digital resources. Those who do not have access to the digital resources they need to tell their stories are disadvantaged in real and important ways.

Bottom line: A number of very important points emerge as we head into the era of "Laptop new media":

1. The Digital Age has produced the Storytelling Age.
2. We have shifted from the consumption based storytelling culture of the age of floor top media to a culture that listens AND tells stories. Studies are emerging that show that well over half of the teenagers who use the Internet are using it, among other things, to share original digital creations.
3. The era of mass-customized media-based storytelling has finally come of age. We can now tell stories in our own language, in our own way that we can distribute using our own at-home equipment.
4. The greater part of innovation comes from consumers, who stretch what the technology will do, and in the process, reinvent art, expression and the nature of creative content on an on-going basis.

Focusing on storytelling

A result of the Storytelling Age is that students come to school already immersed in the story culture through digital channels - as well as interpersonal communication at home and with friends. So, neither storytelling nor media-based storytelling is foreign to them.

Yet I still find that students need help creating and delivering a story "that works" - that flows from beginning to end, that stays "on message," and that is memorable, and, hopefully, transformational for the the listener. This is particularly important when it comes to digital storytelling because students can easily become enamored of the technology at the expense of their stories.

I also find that students need help understanding the ethical, social and media literacy aspects of media production. This is particularly important if students are to understand how the media they consume tries deliberately to persuade how they think, what they buy and how they vote.

Bottom Line: Telling weak stories with technology is like giving a bad guitar player a bigger amplifier. Similarly, when students have no understanding of how media persuasion works they do not have the skills necessary to understand the digital world they inhabit. Therefore, the most important thing we can do for students is teach them how to tell an effective story. The rest of this site is dedicated to helping students learn how to to tell stories so they can persuade, and understand how others persuade them.

New Media Narrative in the Schools

Before you begin a digital storytelling project in your school

The rest of this site takes you through the process I use with teachers and students to facilitate a digital storytelling project in a school setting. Before I show you the process, here are a few things to consider. These are big picture issues that could scuttle your efforts, so it's best to consider them ahead of time.

1. Every project needs a classroom teacher who is keen to do a digital storytelling project. The teacher needs to have the interest and passion, as well as time in her curriculum. I always talk to teachers a lot to make sure they understand what they are getting into.
2. Every project also needs tech support people who are keen to support a digital storytelling project. Today's students feel comfortable with technology and in most cases will provide much of the in-class tech support that you need. But I find it is also helpful to involve the school's technology support person for out-of-class help, such as locating and maintaining equipment, purchasing and installing software, burning DVDs and so on. I just completed a digital storytelling project in which I worked side by side with both the teacher and technology teacher in the school. It was an ideal situation.
3. Focus on assessment. I encourage teachers ahead of time to think about how they want to assess digital storytelling projects - As literacy projects? Art projects? Content area projects? Some combination of these? What is important is that teachers consider the important issue of assessment before they get started, rather than after the project is over. To help them focus I ask them, "Suppose a parent asks you why you are doing this. What would you say?"
4. Parent notification and permission. Because you will be showing student work that might include the actual students themselves, you must get expressed written permission from parents to do so. I send out a letter at the beginning of the project to let parents know about the project, then follow up with a permission slip asking for permission to record and show student work.
   
   

Letters home to parents. Here are templates for the two letters teachers typically need to send home to parents:

1. Parent notification. This letter explains what a digital storytelling project involves and how it benefits students.
2. Parent permission. This letter seeks permission from parents to record and distribute their childrens' performances. I do not provide an example because parent permission requirements vary from school district to school district. Ask your administrator or district's counsel for the media release form. When in doubt about any aspects of this, ask them for clarification.

The Story Understanding Process - Begin with the Story Core

No matter what kind of approach to storytelling I am using, I always being by focusing on the story, not the technology.

To do this I usually tell stories and show stories created by other students (on DVD), then "find the story core" in each of the stories. You see the story core depicted below, as a problem and solution precariously perched on top of a tipping point, signifying that stories have tension that give them forward motion as they move from problem through transformation to solution. This is explained below, as well as covered in some detail in my book, Digital Storytelling in the Classroom.

The story core represents only one approach to story and new media. But suffice it to say for now that the world of Western storytelling relies heavily on stories with "story cores," making it recognizable to students. I start with the core, and see where each project leads me.

THE STORY CORE - Basic Configuration

Story Core's 3 Elements. Note that a story core has the following three basic elememnts:

1. The central challenge that creates the story’s tension and forward momentum. This can be a question, a problem, an obstacle, an opportunity or a goal that needs to be addressed by the main character in the story.The challenge creates tension that gives the story its forward momentum, which in turn produces listener involvement. FYI: the main character can be anything from a rock, to a group of animals, to a student, to, in some cases, the audience itself.


2. Character transformation that facilitates the response to the challenge. Transformation is difficult and is often resisted, a portrayed in the picture below. Transformation is the essential change that a character needs to undergo to address the challenge, obstacle or opportunity. Sometimes the transformation occurs at the end, and, rarely, at the beginning. But it is usually most powerful when it occurs in the middle and facilitates the response to the challenge. Typically, change is a struggle. Either “life” or the “old you” pushes back as new circumstances or a “new you” struggles to emerge. If change comes too easily in a story, the audience disengages.


3. The response to the challenge that resolves the tension and leads to story closure. The character addresses the challenge made possible by the transformation. This can mean solving a mystery, slaying a dragon, reaching a goal, applying new academic knowledge or learning processes, overcoming an obstacle… anything that addresses the challenge, resolves the tension and leads to closure. Closure by no means implies a happy ending, just a resolution of events.

To me, the story core is about emergence, as portrayed in this image. Here you see an "old me" and "new me" battling with each other. The old me struggles not to change, to maintain the status quo and thus deny the call to adventure and to transformation. The new me knows that his survival ultimately depends on his transformation.

THE STORY CORE - Illustrated

Story Mapping

Storymapping is basically a process of fleshing out the story core with story details. To demonstrate this I usually tell and map stories with students as a group exercise. Students then begin their storytelling projects by creating a story map that sketches out their stories. This is explained below.

There are many approaches to story mapping (see my book, Digital Storytelling in the Classroom). However, my favorite is Brett Dillingham's Visual Portrait of the Story (VPS), presented here. I recommend you look at Brett's site for great storytelling materials. The basic VPS as I have adapted it appears below:

The map shows the five essential story elements. Note that the story core is at the heart of the map:

1. Beginning. This is Campbell's "call to adventure." Somehow, normal life is suspended and an adventure begins.
2. Problem. Life pushes against the main character in the story by presenting him or her with a problem to solve, an obstacle to overcome, or a mission to accomplish. The problem creates the tension that must be resolved. It sets the mood, and makes story listeners want to know what is going to happen next.
3. Changes. The main character transforms in some significant way, such as learning something important, becoming more skilled, mature or courageous, or developing personal insight and understanding. In great stories the character's transformation is so great that we, the listening audience, feel transformed as well. However, this is the simple explanation. I devote an entire chapter in my book to transformation because it can be a complex topic. For example, with documentaries sometimes the primary transformation is in audience members, as we learn about a situation that has an effect on us. With academic new media stories, transformation occurs by students showing what they have learned. See the chapter for much more on this topic.
4. Solution. Often due to the transformation, the character can now solve the problem, overcome the obstacle or accomplish the mission. Sometimes the change and solution don't come until the end of the story.
5. End. The end brings the story to "closure." Note that closure does not necessarily mean "a happy ending." It simply means that the problem in the story has been resolved.

The story mapping process: The story mapping process is fairly straightforward. Students draw this basic VPS story map (without the wording) on a piece of a regular paper, usually turned sideways to better accommodate the VPS. Then they annotate the VPS with words, phrases or sentences that describe the basic elements of their story.

Here are a few important points about using story maps:

1. Maps are not formulas. In the words of Robert McKee (author of Story, the well known bible for movie story development) when it comes to creating good stories, "...there are no formulas but there are guidelines." A story map is just a guideline.
2. Characters that grow and change engage listeners. The heart of so many good stories is the transformation that the main character undergoes. A story that features a character who learns something or grows in some way to solve a problem or overcomes an obstacle is a time honored way to create a memorable story that engages story listeners.
3. Maps provide an effective way for teachers to interact with students. Essentially, a story map is a quick write in graphic form. (Dillingham, 2006) Teachers can look at a map and tell very quickly whether a story is well-developed, and challenge the student as they see fit. Because mapping happens at the beginning of the process, teacher input can make a big difference in the quality of the story. Using story mapping is quite a change from the typical media development process, in which teachers don't really know how the story is going to work until it is in production, at which point it is too late.

How I proceed from here depends on whether I am doing computer-based digital storytelling or green screen performance-based storytelling. Each is described in turn.

Two approaches to digital storytelling

As I mentioned earlier, while there are many approaches to developing new media stories, typically I am involved with two: computer-based digital storytelling and performance based "green screen" digital storytelling. Each is described below.

Approach I: Computer-based digital storytelling

This refers to what many would call conventional digital storytelling. Students use the computer as the main creation and performance engine. Typically this involves creating a voice-over narration and then adding images, music, titles etc. using a program like iMovie on the Mac, or MovieMaker on the PC. The final product is watched on the computer and is very reminiscent of a Ken Burns documentary in form. The process begins with mapping and the narration process (write, record, listen) described in the diagram below:

Story Narrative Steps- create story map and narration first! Map. Students create a story map (see above). Peer pitch. Students use their maps to pitch their stories to each other. They listen, respond, provide feedback they can use to revise their stories. Write. Students write the narrative they will record. Record. Students record themselves speaking their narrative. Listen. Students listen to their narrative for purposes of revision. Done? Students and/or teachers decide whether the narrative is finished. If not, is this because, a) it needs rewriting or b) it needs re-recording for technical or expression reasons? Next steps. Students proceed with adding images, music, etc., as well as editing.

Narrative is key. Have your students spend as much time as possible developing and recording their narrative for the following important reasons:

1. The narration development process facilitates the development of oral and written literacy skills in real, creative ways that students enjoy. It facilitates "literacy under the radar."
2. The narration process has the same impact as the writing process on the quality of student work. Just like "good writing is re-writing," it is also true that "good narrating is re-narrating."
3. The narration forms the foundation for everything else that follows. If the narrative is solid, then the story has a great chance of being successful.
4. Tech tip: To reduce technical issues, always perform a test recording: speak a few sentences, listen to it, and adjust your recording levels as needed.

Many ways to record narrative. You can use a headset, a stationary mike, the mike built into your computer or a wireless mike to record your narrative. There are pros and cons to each. I provide information about audio and miking techniques at a companion storytelling page.

Next steps: The Media Production Process

Once the story map and narration are completed, students follow the steps in what is commonly referred to as the media production process to complete their projects. Each of the four phases of this process is described below.

Phase I. Pre-production. This involves creating, mapping and storyboarding the story, generating a media list, and gathering media. In short, pre-production involves the steps that students need to follow before they sit down at the computer and begin formal production. Each of these is addressed below:

1. Create and map the story. This was covered in some detail above. Don't forget to include peer pitching and other kinds of review.
2. Write/script.Students write out the script they are going to speak.
3. Record/listen/redo.Students record their script, listen to it, and redo either the script or the recording if necessary.
4. Create a storyboard. A story map shows the flow of emotion in a story. A storyboard shows the flow of motion. A storyboard is used to make sure that the story flows logically and sequentially, without holes or detours. Typically, a storyboard looks something like a PowerPoint presentation - a series of panels, each with an image and wording that explain the action in the story. In fact, I have used PowerPoint as a storyboarding tool very successfully. A new slide or panel is created whenever there is a significant change in the story, such as a change in image, location, or character.
   
   There are many approaches to storyboarding, from the very formal to the informal. If students are limiting their stories to around 2 minutes (which I recommend), and have created either a detailed story map or a completed written narrative, then I don't require them to make a formal storyboard. Instead I use less formal approaches to storyboarding, such as:
   • Annotate the story map. Usually there is enough room on the VPS itself to sketch details for scene changes, visual images, music, and so on.
   • Annotate the written narrative. If students print out their written narrative double-spaced and with wide margins they can add enough direction and annotation to it to create a useful story planning document.

   Storyboarding is a function of complexity. If students create projects that are much longer than 2 minutes, then they should create some kind of formal storyboard. I have created storyboarding materials specifically for this kind of digital storytelling that you are free to use.

5. Narrate. Write, speak, listen and rewrite the narrative, as explained above.
6. Develop a media list. Students use their story map, narrative, or storyboard to create a list of the images, sounds and other media they will need.
7. Go get the media! Students gather all of the materials they need. This could mean searching on the Internet, scanning photos or objects, taking pictures, downloading music, etc. They want all the material with them as they sit down to assemble the story. If they don't have all the media, then they end up interrupting the creative flow every time they have to go get something. It is very frustrating.

Phase II. Production. Students sit at the computer with their completed story, narrative and media and assemble the story. Generally this involves:

1. Use iMovie on the Mac or MovieMaker on the PC. There are plenty of programs that can be used to create a digital story, but these are common, easy to use, and free.
2. Add the narrative to their story. Students first add their recorded narrative to their stories. If they have used iMovie or MovieMaker to create the narrative - an approach that is quite commonly done - then they have already completed this step.
3. Add visual media to the narrative. Students add pictures, scanned images, etc. to support the narrative. They could also add animation and/or video, but doing so typically adds a level of cost and complexity that is hard to accommodate in an average K-12 classroom.
4. Add music, sounds, other voices. Audio information is added.
5. Mix. Once all the media elements have been added to the story, students now mix the audio. Above all, they need to make sure that nothing drowns out the narrative. Similarly, they need to make sure that visual information shows for just the length of time they want, in order to support rather than detract from the narrative.
6. Peer/instructor review?. Having students show their work in progress can be very helpful. How teachers approach that depends on a number of factors, including class size, structure and the purpose of the storytelling project.

Phase III. Post-Production. By this phase, the story is basically done but still in rough form. Typically at this point students do the following:

1. Add titles. Students add opening title information, and maybe other titles that appear during the story.
2. Add background title music? Up to you.
3. Add transitions and effects. iMovie and MovieMaker include many transitions and effects, from common transitions like fading in and out, to bold effects, like making words swirl on the screen. Caution your students to use the fancy stuff sparingly and with purpose and deliberation. The gratuitous use of transitions and effects just distracts story listeners.
4. Add credits and citations. Students add credits and citations at the end the story. I provide fairly detailed information about copyright issues on a companion digital storytelling page .
5. Peer/instructor review? Having an in-class showing can be a good way for students to get input before their final mix.
6. Final mix, polishing. Students make any final modifications to their stories - the traditional "one last pass."
7. Export the final file. Students need to create a movie file that can be seen independently of the software they used to create it. This is generally referred to as "exporting the file." As of 2007, in iMovie the command is either Share or Export; in MovieMaker, select "Save Movie" from the File menu.

Phase IV. Performance, distribution. The story is done and is ready to be performed and/or distributed. Ways to do this include:

1. Burn a DVD for distribution. It is currently very straightforward to "burn" student work on a DVD. This approach is allows others to just pop the DVD into a computer or home DVD player and press play. I recommend distributing the DVD to school board members, parents, and others in the community.
2. Showing in-class, in-school, in-community. Have a showing for other teachers and students within your school or school district. Also consider a public showing at a school board meeting or other community event.
3. Web-casting, web-streaming. Digital stories are ideal for web showing and distribution. Ask your favorite techie for help with web streaming.
4. Community TV. Reach the community by showing student work on community TV. Don't forget to let people know when it is going to air!

Digital Storytelling Approach II:
Performance-based "green screen" digital storytelling

The second approach to digital storytelling is "green screen performance-based storytelling."

In this approach, students perform their stores in traditional oral fashion in front of a green surface - usually a painted wall - and then create and add their own artwork behind themselves using the computer and chroma key editing software. Besides allowing students to stand and deliver their stories - an immensely powerful experience - this approach also gives them a peek into the world of chroma key editing and media persuasion that is part of so much of the media they consume.

True story: Once I was doing a green screen storytelling project with a group of fourth graders and asked how many knew that Harry Potter wasn't actually flying around on a broom in a stadium during the Quidditch match. Every hand went up. I called on a student who was eager to share his understanding and he explained that Harry was in a green room, and that everything else was added by computer later. All the kids agreed - one even said "duh!" Every adult in the room asked me, "What's a green room?"

Pictorial Overview

The following four pictures provide an idea of how the green screen storytelling approach works. In the first picture you see Hannah Davis, a 4th grader at the time, performing her story in front of a wall that was painted green. In the second picture a photograph of a fox she found on the internet appears behind her, added using chroma key "green screen" editing. In photos 3 and 4, she is performing in front of original artwork, using the same editing techniques.

Incidentally, a very thorough step-by-step pictorial of the entire class-room based green screen process is available at Nome Green Screen Storytelling Project, 2007. This presentation shows all the steps, including story prep, software training, artwork development, and so on.

In front of the chroma screen...	In front of a fox!
In front of original pictures...	The grand finale!

Watch Hannah's performance

• View "The Fox Who Became a Better Person" on YouTube.

Green screen technology resources

Part III of of this web resource (Technology and Technique of Digital Storytelling) has a great deal of "how-to" resource material, including software tutorials, purchasing recommendations and so on. Go to the Going green - using green screen and chroma key editing in digital storytelling section of Part III for more details.

Creating and rehearsing the story. First let's look at the process of creating and rehearsing the story. As you will see, it is very similar to the process used to create a computer-based story:

Steps- create the story map and tell the story first! Map. Students create a story map (see above). Tell. After receiving storytelling training, students tell their stories to the whole group. Write. Students write out their stories. Tell/retell. Students tell/ retell their stories in pairs, small groups; listen, respond, provide feedback about improving their story telling. Done? This is the teacher's call. Do students need more work telling? Listening? Writing? Literacy objectives will drive this decision. Next steps. Students record their final performances in front of a green screen, create and add artwork, etc.

Next steps: The Media Production Process

The next steps in this process are very similar to the steps used in the media production process for the computer-based digital storytelling process explained above.

A note about green screen details: While I cover a good deal of what you need to consider in producing green screen storytelling in this section, there are a number of tips and techniques about lighting, clothing, artwork, etc., that I have learned over the years that space won't allow me to include here. For more information about the details of green screen storytelling, download Green Screening Technical Notes.

Phase I. Pre-production. This involves creating, mapping and storyboarding the story, telling and retelling the story, recording the final performance, and creating background pictures. Each of these is addressed below:

1. Create and map the story. This was covered in some detail above.
2. Create a storyboard? Because this a storytelling in which students suggest scene changes, rather than a movie with actual scene changes, I find this is not usually necessary. Instead I use less formal approaches to storyboarding, such as annotating the story map or narrative.
3. Tell their stores in front of the whole group. Typically this means tells stories in front of the whole class.
4. Write their stores. Students write out their stories.
5. Tell and retell stories. Students tell and retell their stories as a means of rehearsal, providing feedback about what makes the story work, and what could improve it.
6. Develop a list of background pictures. Students use their story map or narrative to determine the pictures they want to create to go behind their performance. Ideally, they would watch their recorded performances and then decide what they need, but there is rarely time for this.
7. Perform and record stories in front of a green surface. After an extensive telling/retelling and writing process, students take turns telling and recording each other's final performance in front of a green wall (or sheet). Each student has an opportunity to be videographer, floor manager (students love saying "Quiet on the set!"), and audio technician, making sure that performers have their lavaliere mikes placed well.
   
   Note: use a wireless mike. If at all possible use wireless lavaliere mikes, not the mike built into the video camera. The sound is vastly superior. This will require you use a video camera that has an external mike input. Technical information about buying and using video recoding equipment in digital storytelling is covered in some detail in a companion website.
8. Create the background pictures. Using common materials (8 1/2 X 11 sheets of paper, crayons, etc.), students create the artwork that will appear behind them. For a 2 minute story, 3-5 pieces of artwork suffices. When students create their artwork be sure that students turn their papers sideways (8 1/2 inches high, 11 inches wide), because their work will better fit on a computer screen. Ideally, students watch their video and then determine what they need in terms of art. But there is rarely time for this.
   
   Note: You can add any digital information you want with chroma key editing: video, animation, digital art, graphics downloaded from the internet (with obvious copyright considerations)...anything. But, I usually limit the artwork to paper and crayon because doing so fits typical classroom time and budget constraints. I also limit using internet materials for copyright reasons, and because i want all the work that students produce to be original.

Phase II. Production. Students sit at the computer with their recorded video and pictures and assemble the story. Generally this involves:

1. Use iMovie on the Mac - I assume MovieMaker on the PC - with a green screen chroma plug in. While there are plenty of programs that can be used to create a digital story, these are common, easy to use, and free. There is a $30 plug-in for iMovie that allows green screen chroma key editing; I assume there is something similar for the PC. My prediction: Soon, you won't need a plug in; software will come with the chroma key capability.
2. Scan artwork. Students then scan their artwork using a typical scanner, and save it as jpg files. For a 2 minute story 3-5 pieces of artwork suffice. When students create their artwork be sure that students turn their papers sideways (8 1/2 high, 11 inches wide), because their work will better fit on a computer screen.
3. Add the video recording. Students open up iMovie or Moviemaker and add their recorded video first.
4. Add scanned images using chroma editing. It is easy to do these days, as well as inexpensive: iMovie has a $30 chroma key editing plug-in that works just fine. Note: the same process is used if they are replacing the green background with other digital media.
5. Add music, sounds, other voices. Although in my projects music and extra audio is not required, feel free to consider this.
6. Mixing. Once all the media elements have been added to the story, students now mix the audio. If the audio on the video recording was good, there is nothing to do.
7. Peer/instructor review?. Having students show their work in progress can be very helpful. How teachers approach the review process depends on a number of factors, including class size, structure and the purpose of the storytelling project.

Phase III. Post-Production. By this phase, the story is basically done, but still in rough form. Typically at this point students do the following:

1. Add titles. Students add opening title information, and maybe other titles that appear during the story.
2. Add background title music? Most media production have music playing while the titles are running. It is up to you.
3. Add transitions and effects. Typically there is little to do, except for fading in and out at the beginning and end, and perhaps between pieces of background art.
4. Add credits and citations. Students add credits and citations at the end the story. I provide fairly detailed information about copyright issues on a companion digital storytelling page.
5. Peer/instructor review? Having an in-class showing can be a good way to for students to get input before their final mix.
6. Final mix, polishing. Students make any final modifications to their stories - the traditional "one last pass."
7. Export the final file. Students need to create a movie file that can be seen independently of the software they used to create it. This is generally referred to as "exporting the file." As of 2006, in iMovie the command is either Share or Export; in MovieMaker, select "Save Movie" from the File menu.

Phase IV. Performance, distribution. The story is done and is ready to be performed and/or distributed. Ways to do this include:

1. Burn a DVD for distribution. It is very straightforward these days to "burn" student work on a DVD. This approach is allows others to simply just pop in the DVD into a computer or home DVD player and press play. I recommend distributing it to school board members, parents, and others in the community.
2. Showing in-class, in-school, in-community. Have a showing for other teachers and students within your school or school district. Also consider a public showing at a school board meeting or other community context.
3. Web-casting, web-streaming. Digital stories are ideal for web showing and distribution. Ask your favorite techie for help with web streaming.
4. Community TV. Reach the community by showing student work on community TV. Don't forget to let people know when it is going to air!

Note: invite community members to the performance recording. Inviting others when you record students; final green screen performances provides students an authentic audience, while involving the community.